The Alliance has compiled some of the most useful information about the cookstoves and fuels sectors to populate this searchable database, including market assessments, consumer behavior and preference information, and other research studies. The database will be updated frequently as we continue to build our knowledge database, and as always we appreciate our partners’ input. If you have any reports or research to add to this database, please send it to knowledge@cleancookstoves.org
This document summarizes the Vietnamese Cookstove and Fuels Market Assessment conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Sixteen assessments were conducted across the world as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This Executive Summary is part of the Ugandan Market Assessment conducted by the Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP) and Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Four assessments were conducted across East Africa in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance the sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This Executive Summary is part of the Tanzanian Market Assessment conducted by the Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP) and Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Four assessments were conducted across East Africa in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance the sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This document summarizes the Rwandan Cookstove and Fuels Market Assessment conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Sixteen assessments were conducted across the world as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This Executive Summary is part of the Kenyan Market Assessment conducted by the Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP) and Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Four assessments were conducted across East Africa in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance the sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This document summarizes the Ghanaian Cookstove and Fuels Market Assessment conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Sixteen assessments were conducted across the world as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This Executive Summary describes the key points from the East African Regional Intervention Options paper prepared by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (‘the Alliance’). It builds on the Market Assessments conducted by the Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP) and ADP in four East African countries; Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda. The Market Assessments consist of two parts; an objective mapping of the sector and a series of intervention options that provide suggestions to help with the creation of a thriving market for clean cookstoves and fuels. These assessments are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012) that can then be used in conjunction with a number of other research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to help the Alliance decide which countries, regions and interventions to prioritize. Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This document summarizes the Bangladeshi Cookstove and Fuels Market Assessment conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP) on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Sixteen assessments were conducted across the world as part of a broader effort by the Alliance to enhance sector market intelligence and knowledge. They are intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector (based on mid 2012). Further detail on these assessments can be found at the end of this document.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.
This Market Assessment was conducted by Accenture Development Partnerships (ADP), the not-for-profit arm of the global management consultancy, Accenture, on behalf of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (the Alliance). It is intended to provide a high level snapshot of the sector that can then be used in conjunction with a number of research papers, consumer surveys and other sources to enhance sector market understanding and help the Alliance decide priority countries. Full slate of market assessments include studies in: Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, East Timor, Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Each assessment has two parts: sector mapping (an objective mapping of the sector); and intervention options (suggestions for removing the many barriers that currently prevent the creation of a thriving market for clean cooking solutions). In each study a combination of ADP and local consultants spent 4-6 weeks in country conducting a combination of primary (in-depth interviews) and secondary research. They used the same Market Assessment ‘Toolkit’ for each country so that comparisons can be made.